Water is a chemical substance, which appears mostly in the oceans and polar ice caps, but it is also presented as clouds, rain water, rivers, lakes and sea ice.

 

Clean water is fundamental for human life. Even though, in many parts of the world, it is in short supply.

 

Water resources are or can be useful to humans. The fresh water is required in many human uses, such as agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities.

 

Photo source

 

This wiki page explores water resources in Italy... 

 

 

 

 

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Water in Italy Water Use in Italy Bottled water or tap water? SIGRIA: a resource for irrigation in Southern Italy "Macro", "mini" and "micro" hydroelectric systems in Italy Classification Water and dams Vajont: the disaster Introduction First Projects The construction of the Vajont dam The causes Further human causes which provoked the disaster The Project Mo.S.E.  TECHNITAL S.p.A. and the realization of Mo.S.E. The Mo.S.E.: some detailed information The NoMose Permanent Assembly References Water in Italy Vajont Mo.S.E. Bottled or tap water?

 

 

Water in Italy

 

Water in Italy is relatively abundant, since yearly net average rainfall per head is around 5200 m³, corresponding to a mean per-capita availability of 2700 m³.

 

Yet available water resources are much lower, since a great variability should accounted for: the yearly, seasonal and regional distribution of rainfall is very high, like in all Mediterrenean Countries. Considering the irregular outflow paths and the technical and natural constraints, true availability is far lower: 2000 m3 taking into account potentially usable resources; and only 928 m3 taking into account just the amount of water that can actually be used, given the available infrastructure and storage capacity.

The mountaineous nature of the largest part of the Italian territory reduces the scope and technical feasibility of internal water transfers. That's the reason why many regions  rely only on their own resources, unless very high costs are incurred into.

 

 

Generally speaking, there are important differences throughout the Country.

Northern Italy, thanks to the Alps and to the natural storage capacity provided by glaciers and lakes, enjoys regular and abundant per-capita endowment. In central and Southern Italy and in the islands available resources are much lower, seasonal variability of runoffs is at the highest.

While the outflow from the Alpine rivers is well distributed during the year (9%, 24%, 41% and 26% respectively for winter, spring, summer and autumn), in the rest of the Country a share between 60 and 90% of total outflow is concentrated in winter and spring.

 

N.B. The lowest mean annual rainfall, about 460 mm, occurs in the Apulia in the south-east and in southern Sicily (380 mm); the highest, about 1520 mm, occurs in the province of Udine in the north-east.

 

 

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Water Use in Italy

 

 

Water is a public good and should be available to everybody. However, things are too often different at all: water is not available in the same quantity all over the world and many countries have to face increasing water shortages. Italian law ratifies the fact that water should be used in a responsible and respectful way according to the principle of solidarity. It also states that water, first of all, has to be used to produce food in agriculture. As a result, 50% of the water resources in Italy are used for agricultural requirements, 20% for civil/domestic use, 20% in industrial production and the remaining 10% in thermoelectrical power stations.[1]

 

In Northern Italy the amount of water consumption is higher than in the rest of the country. In these regions water is, above all, used in industrial and agricultural production. In the centre, water resources are mainly exploited for domestic use and industrial uses, whereas in the South, water resources are largely used to irrigate fields. The water used for the production of agricultural goods is provided firstly by streams and flows (66%) and secondly by wells and springs (28%) [2]. As the consumption of water in this field is very high, it would be useful to reuse domestic sewage. 

 

 

Domestic water use includes water used for indoor and outdoor household purposes, like bathing, drinking, washing, watering the garden, etc. Most of the water we use for this purposes is public supplied, that means that is delivered by public departments and comes mainly from wells and springs. In most of the cases, this water is potable even though in Italy more than 90% of water for domestic uses are not used for drinking. In order to safe water, it would be a good idea to use non-potable water for domestic uses.

 

 

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Bottled water or tap water?

 

 

Each day Italians consume for domestic needs 252 liters of water on average. The water consumption per capita can be divided into different categories:

 

• 30% for shower and bath;
• 20% for sanitary appliances;
• 12% for the laundry;
• 10% for the washing-up;
• 6% for cooking;
• ONLY 1% for drinking. (http://www.buonpernoi.it/acqua/page/quotidiana.html)

 

The fact that this last percentage is very low (1%) means that Italians prefer bottled water to tap water. The reason for this fact is that advertising campaigns, which exploit famous testimonials to convey their messages, are literally bombarding us, creating the sensation that bottled water is more genuine and "natural" than tap water.

 

Some considerations on this point are required.

 

Tap water has to comply with stricter controls than bottled water. As a matter of fact, bottled water companies do not need to specify the percentage of elements such as Nickel and Vanadium which are present in the water. On the contrary, tap water must be frequently controlled in order to keep the percentage of these elements under fixed levels. Moreover, the percentage of cyanide we find in tap water mustn't exceed 50 mg/l, while in bottled water no restriction is imposed.

 

It is true that companies producing bottled water are obliged to put a label on each bottle indicating the percentage of the elements they use, but they have to signal these values only if they exceed some prearranged percentages for which a label is compulsory. This means that if the values exceed these limits, they have just to communicate them by a label. In this way the companies can legally exceed the limits because they have informed the consumers. However, reading a label is not so easy: it contains technical terms that are very difficult to understand and to judge.

 

The Ministry of Health said that tap water can be more polluted than bottled water, but it depends on the place where we live. In Ferrara, there is an efficient purification plant, but since it is located near the Po River and it absorbs all the industrial waste coming from cities like Milan, its water is not so pure. Bologna has recently bought a part of Porretta's springs. Nevertheless, its plumbings are still  in amianthus which is highly cancerogenic. So, it seems that in many Italians regions, drinking tap water is not possible because of the diseases polluted water might cause.

 

Mineral water has created a turnover of 2500 billion euros per year; in fact, the Italian water consumption is the highest in Europe (11 billion litres of water in 2002). However, what is strange is that the extraction of water from the Italian subsoil is regulated by a decree law dated 1927, which fixed a price according to the dimensions of the subsoil rather than to the quantity of water we can find. This means that regions drew each year a ridiculous amount of money for the exploitation of their water resources. Campania, for example, draws only 506 euros per year by a famous company. In addition, regions have to meet the costs of the control and the waste disposal because using bottled water implies an increase in the consumption of plastic (PET).

 

 

 

 

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SIGRIA: a resource for irrigation in Southern Italy

 

SIGRIA is the acronym for the Italian Sistema Integrato per la Gestione delle Risorse Idriche in Agricoltura-Integrated System for Water Management in Agriculture.

SIGRIA is a comprehensive and integrated set of tools used by national and regional governments to:

 

• plan new infrastructures, including dams and water distribution networks;

• identify and solve situations of competition for water by different users;

• mitigate the effects of annual droughts;

• develop and implement new policies on water pricing.

   

The area for which SIGRIA has been developed consists of the eight regions of Southern  Italy: Abruzzo, Molise, Puglia, Campania, Basilicata, Calabria, Sicilia and Sardegna.

 

This represents an important help for the situation of Southern Italy because, especially in this region, water is a vital element for agricultural production and irrigation and should be required timely by farmers at a reasonable price and in requested quantities.

 

Unfortunately, in this part of Italy, the quantity of water is quite poor and is not distributed evenly: the areas with the most intensive agricultural crops have limited water availability.

 

Finally, water management is highly fragmented, among over 50 local reclamation consortia, regional, governments, organisms in charge of dams’ maintenance and regulation.

 

 

Because of these unfavourable conditions, SIGRIA  represents a comprehensive information system that contains a complete set of databases and tools on land use, irrigation networks and economic data at local level. Its developed tools include:

 

• a detailed map on land cover/use, identifying all irrigated areas and crops grown per season;

• an irrigation suitability map;

• all irrigation water networks, from the water source (dam river, etc. ) to the farm or group of farms, including a database on the technical features of the network;

• extensive databases on the features of irrigation (i.e. crops, farms, costs) at local level;

• a linear programming model on the optimal allocation of resources for irrigation, at farm and basin level;

• a model on local water equirements by crops, depending on soil and weather data.

   

 

 

 

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"Macro", "mini" and "micro" hydroelectric systems in Italy

 

Italy started to use hydroelectric power in1889 in Genua (Isoverde) and Rome (Acquoria, in Tivoli). For a long time hydroelectric power represented the energy resource mostly used, since there weren’t many other energy resources available and energy was fundamental for the fast-growing industrial sector.

In the ‘60s the hydroelectric power was still widely used in order to produce electric energy: in 1963 hydroelectric power supplied 65% of the national energy needs. (Enel)

 

Although nowadays hydroelectric power supplies only 19% of the national energy demand, its power has increased (20.837 MW in 2002) thanks to the creation of big (or “macro”) water systems and pumping stations. An important innovation in the field is represented by the creation of “mini” and  “micro” hydroelectric systems which contribute to increase the production of the national hydroelectric power.

The difference between “macro” and “micro” water systems is calculated on the basis of the power produced. Moreover, “macro” hydroelectric systems require artificial lakes (dims), where the water can be stored, while “micro” ones work like high-tech mills .

Although a single “mini” and “micro” hydroelectric system produces less power (than a “macro” one) a large number of them totally produce a higher level of electric power which is important in order to satisfy a portion of the national energy demand.

Enel is managing 250 hydroelectric systems which totally produce 1.400 MW; whereas the power produced by the “mini” hydroelectric systems (Enel+others) is 2.290 MW (Enea, 2003).

 

The use of smaller hydroelectric systems is increasing for the following reasons:

 

• they are easier to manage (even small communities can manage them);

• they contribute to the preservation of the environment (low environmental impacts);

• they require a steady monitoring of the environmental maintenance;

• they contribute to restore and potentiate abandoned mountain areas and exploit their water sources.

 

 (Source [3])

 

Classification

 

ONU’s classification for the Industrial Development (UNIDO) is the following:

 

• Micro Hydroelectric Power Stations P<100kW
• Mini Hydroelectric Power Stations 100kW<P<1000kW
• Small Hydroelectric Power Stations 1000kW<P<10000kW
• Large Hydroelectric Power Stations P>10000kW

N.B. P= power produced by a power station in nominal conditions.

 

[Reference]

 

 

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Water and dams

 

THE PROBLEM OF BIG DAMS

 

The first interventions made by men were addressed to control the flow of the rivers. They go back to remote ages and were used to carry the water were was needed in order to amass it and make it accessible in periods of drought. Since then the number, the quantity and the quality of the interventions grew up and created a situation of global warning which will probably assume an increasing relevance. The main problems about big dams are the dimensions of the interventions and their possible consequences.

 

BIG DAMS… NO THANKS

 

The construction of these big water infrastructures is said to be sign of progress and development. If we analyze this issue in a more careful way, we can notice that there are several problems of different nature which lead us to adopt an opposed position concerning these works.

 

Serious consequences for the environment

 

• The construction of a big dam provokes an alteration of the quality of waters because it modifies in a drastic way the ichthyic fauna.
• The great dimension of these infrastructures can produce a serious geological instability (see the Vajont disaster) and as a consequence many effects towards local populations. 
• The natural and animal habitat at the head of these barriers is completely changed because of the flood of wide areas. This flooding causes in this way possible microclimatic changes and can modify in a little time an ecosystem created during millenniums.

Social effects for local populations

 

• Particularly serious is the problem of the relocation of people who live in the areas destined to be flooded. Most of the times these people don’t receive any kind of indemnity.
• People who live near the rivers won’t be able do use water freely and they will be supposed to address to private companies which run this business. Moreover, there often is an increase in the price for the use of water.

 

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Vajont: the disaster

 

 

Photo source

 

Introduction

 

 Vajont is the torrent flowing from Erto and Casso’s valley to Piave, in front of Longarone and Castellavazzo, in Belluno.

The life of these towns was destroyed by the construction of the Vajont dam which caused the landslide of mount Toc in the reservoir. In 1963, 9th October, a big wave rose, getting to the the whole population. Nowadays the estimates are about 1910 victims. Remarkably the dam remained unbroken by the flood.

It is said that this disaster is a classic example of the consequences of the failure of engineers and geologists; the reason is that they could not understand the nature of the problem that they were trying to deal with (Dr Petley David, 2001).

Nowadays Longarone and the towns which were destroyed have been rebuilt. However, the place keeps on giving evidence of the catastrophic disaster.

Photo source

 

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First Projects

The waters of the river Vajont had always been seen as a great energy source since 1900. In this year Gustavo Protti made the first request to build a dam 8 meters tall in order to obtain from it a good amount of “forza motrice” - motive power- for his paper mill. About 25 years later the river began to be seen as a possible source of hydroelectric power. In 1929 the engineer Carlo Semenza made his first project for a great dam in Vajont. In those years he was working to this project for the Società Idroelettrica Veneta (The Hydroelectric Society of Veneto). According to this first project the dam had to be 130 m. high and hold 33 million mc of water. In 1937 the Società Idroelettrica Veneta was integrated in the SADE (Società Adriatica Di Elettricità, a private company for electric energy) which asked Semenza to complete and improve his project on the dam. In this second project the dam was going to be 190 m high and was going to hold 46 million mc of water. This dam was going to be built near the Colombèr bridge. In the following years this type of energetic exploitation of rivers reached other rivers as well, and in 1940 the project "Derivazione dai fiumi Boite - Piave - Vajont: fusione e coordinamento di precedenti domande" was elaborated.

 

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The construction of the Vajont dam

In 1953 the new president of the SADE, th count Vittorio Cini, was fascinated both by the valley and the dam project of Vajont. Semenza’s dream to see the realization of his project about the highest dam in the world was now going to be fulfilled. Unfortunately, the procedure followed was not legal.

The construction began in 1956 when the SADE had not obtained all the permissions yet. The final aim of building the dam which would complete the project of one of the biggest hydroelectric plants in Italy was more important than any legal procedure. At that moment the first big mistake was made: from a geological point of view the valley was not adequate for a dam like the one wanted in the last project. Moreover, the cities interested in the project protested heatedly. The mayor of Longarone was afraid of what this dam could cause to the lands along the river, which would not recieve water any more; the mayor of Erto and Casso protested saying that a lot of lands would have been submerged; other local entities objected the negative effects the dam would have had on landscape and, therefore, on tourism.

 

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The causes

 

Three days after the disaster, October 11th, the Committee of enquiry on the calamity was appointed.

However, the process began in November 1968 and ended in March 1971: the penal liability for the possibility to foresee the flood and landslide and for the multiple second-degree murders was admitted.

The process demonstrated that there were mainly three human errors which took to the disaster:

 

•       the valley was not geologically suitable for the construction of a dum;

•      the height of the reservoir was risen over the safety margins;

•      the alarm for the population living in the place to evacuate never started (Comune di Longarone, 2005).

 

“It is likely that increasing the level of the reservoir drove up pore pressures in the clay layers, reducing the effective normal strength and hence the shear resistance” (Dr Petley David, 2001).

 

Some historical documents coming from Catullo, give evidence that the area was not solid; these proofs are about some landslides which fell into the valley bottom. Once more, in 1347, 1737, 1814, 1868 some landslides detached from Mount Antelio causing a lot of victims (Wikipedia, 2007).

 

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Further human causes which provoked the disaster

 

Besides the three main human causes mentioned above, there are three further ones which are very important as well, in order to understand the reasons for such a disaster. These further human causes are:

 

 

• the building of a street;
• the actions of  “invaso e svaso”;
• the deforestation.
   
   

The citizens who lived on one river of the lake had their fields on the other side. Moreover, the school of their children was on the other side of the lake as well. Since they didn’t want to waste time and circumnavigate the lake all the times they had to go on the other side of it, they asked the Town Council for the building of a bridge. The SADE, the private hydroelectric company which built the Vajont dam, said that it was not possible because of the unsuitability of the ground. However, a street (12 Km long) along the river of the lake was built (the ground was unsuitable not only for the building of a bridge but also for that of a street! However, the Town Council didn’t care about this).  

Another human cause of the disaster was due to the “prove d’invaso and svaso”, that is, actions through which it is possible to check if an artificial tank works: the water is put in ("invaso") - and later put out of ("svaso") - the tank in order to check if the dam has been damaged. During the testing of the dam these actions caused some cracks in the rocks and damaged their permeability.

Finally, the deforestation of the ground caused the hydro-geological disorder, that is, a condition of imbalance and  instability of the ground. Forests favour the uptake of  the rainwater; if they are destroyed by human beings they can’t carry out their task anymore [1] .

 

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The Project Mo.S.E. 

  

The question of Venice emerged at the beginning of the 1970s, when, after the disastrous tidal wave of the 4^th of November of 1966, politicians and experts started to work on a complex and ‘extraordinary’ financial and legislative project in order to protect Venice.

 

Soon after they realized that the problem was enormous and heterogeneous: they became aware that it was absolutely necessity to acquire and to study in depth a multisectorial and multidisciplinary knowledge.

 

In 1989, the preliminary project REA – “Riequilibrio E Ambiente” – was completed by the Authority for Water (Magistrato alle Acque). In this project, in order to reach the best solution for the defence of the lagoon of Venice, numerous hypothesis were taken into consideration. These can be summarized into three main strategies:

1. projects to protect lagoon inhabitants with local defence works
2. projects on the physical structure of the lagoon
3. projects on harbour inlets (permanent of temporal) 

 

The solution chosen implied a combination of all these strategies: a system that combined mobile devices (temporal closure of all three harbour inlets) and interventions to lift up local seashores.

 

Experts studied various alternatives for the individuation of the most appropriate mobile device to solve the problem of Venice. And the type of lock chosen by the REA project is the following:

 

 

Photo Source

 

 

The project received positive judgements from different people and organizations. For example, in July 1992, a staff made up of five international experts gave a very positive opinion about it. Finally, on the 6^th December 2001, the Council of Ministers  and the “Comitatone” definitely approved the project.

 

The final decision was the construction of the system called Mose (Modulo Sperimentale Elettromeccanico): the construction of three mobile devices out of the inlets of harbours of Lido, Malamocco and Chioggia and the lift up of the seashore.

 

The system is thought to interfere with the dock commercial activities (it has a navigation channel at the "bocca di Malamocco that is 370 metres long that was built for this reason) as less as possible, because it is built in a way to allow to close it only three or five times per year, during the emergencies, in order to avoid big changes in the level of the water. It is also built to damage environment as less as possible and is also useful to maintain the water of the dock quite clean.

 

The works started in May 2003 and are supposed to be finished by 2011.

The works to build the system MOSE are going on at the same time. In spite of the fact that they started four years ago, they are now completed only at 30%. About 700 people are working to realize the project at the moment. All works are carried out in three steps.

 

The first step has already been completed: it was composed of some works and studies that were done to prepare the installation of the doors on the three "bocche" of the dock.

The second step,  now in progress, is the construction of the main platforms for the doors of the system, as well as some little docks and channels for small ships (like fishing ships, rescue ships) in the "bocche" of Lido and Chioggia and the big navigation channel at the "bocca di Malamocco".

The last step will be the installation of the doors and the protection of the areas in front of those doors.

At the end of the works, four lines of doors will be build up (one at Malamocco, one at Chioggia, two at Lido).

 

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TECHNITAL S.p.A. and the realization of Mo.S.E.

 

TECHNITAL S.p.A. is working at the project to safeguard Venice: the company is one of the most important consulting engineering firms worldwide whose main technical office is in Verona. The main aim of this leading engineering company is the defence of the lagoon basin from the damaging effects of high tides.

 

The solution found by the company involves the separation of the lagoon from the sea due to MOBILE BARRIERS. These mobile barriers consist of rows of gates fixed on the lagoon inlets of Lido, Malamocco e Chioggia: under normal tidal conditions the barriers are full of water while, when high tides are forecast, they introduce compressed air into the gates in order to expel the water. That means the inlets are only closed for the duration of the high tides and for the time they need to open and close the gates (they calculate it takes, on average, something like four and one-half hours). A life size prototype of a gate has already been constructed, it is the so called Mo.S.E. (Modulo Sperimentale Elettromeccanico).

 

 

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The Mo.S.E.: some detailed information

 

 

This project is a highly innovative solution, which had required numerous studies, searches and analysis on mathematical and physical models. 

The final solution consists in a defensive system of mobile floodgates on harbour inlets, able to temporarily isolate the lagoon from the sea, during events such as particularly high tides. 

 

This system seems to be very functional, capable to guaranty the quality of water, the tutelage of the morphology and the landscape, and the maintenance of harbour activities.

 

How does it function?

 

 

• On the sea floor of the harbour inlets are installed mobile floodgate.

• They are defined “mobile” because in normal conditions of tide, they are full of water and therefore they remain into the slot structures (strutture di alloggiamento) built on the sea flood.
•  During high tides, the floodgates get empty by the emission of compressed air.
• Consequently, they rise and emerge from the water.
• In this way, it is possible to temporarily isolate the lagoon from the seaside and to block the tide.
• Then, when the water of the sea returns to its normal level, that is, at the same level of the water of the dock, floodgates are again filled in with water in order to make them sink in their slot structures. The doors remain closed only at high watermark, more or less for four hours and a half.

 

The system can support 2 m of difference of level between lagoon and water.

 

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The NoMose Permanent Assembly

 

The NoMose Permanent Assembly was created in Venice in 2005 thanks to the important contribution of those Cultural, Environmental and Social Associations which, throughout these years, have done their best to safeguard Venice and its lagoon.

It is an open assembly with a twofold aim: block the construction of the three openings to the port of Venice closed by the Mo.S.E. system; carry out alternative, eco-friendly projects which can solve the problem of “high water” once and for all. The Assembly plays a crucial role in informing Venice citizenship about the whole Mo.S.E. system, work progress, cost and time of work, course of action and possible alternatives. [1]

 

Why NoMose?

 

Basically, the Mo.S.E. project must be blocked for the following reasons.

• It is against the rules of environmental impact provided by the European Community.

• Its construction will bring about disastrous consequences on the environment, as well as an irreversible change of the landscape of the Lagoon.

• The dimensions of the worksite and the finished  project, as well as its cost are unacceptable.

• It will have a marked impact both on the activities of the port of Venice and the ecosystem of the Lagoon.

• If there is a malfunction, or the level of the oceans rises there can be irreversible damages and the project will not serve any purpose.

 

“Venice can free itself from high water through alternative solutions that cost less, take less time, are reversible and better able to protect Venice” [2]

 

 

4 appeals against MOSE

 

In 2004, the two environmental orgnaizations Italia Nostra and WWF presented four appeals against the construction of MOSE in the area between the Lagoon of Venice and the Adriatic sea. They applied to a higher court for revising the decision of building the Mose dam system and  letting out on a contract to  Consorzio Venezia Nuova, which would be chosen without competition for all public work in Venice.

This fact gives an illegitimate and inappropriate meaning to the existing agreement. Moreover, the MOSE dam system has been considered as many separate systems in order to deceive administrative acts and permit its construction. The Comitatone( the big committee of national ministries and local governments) authorized the final phase of the project without respecting the procedures of the special laws for Venice.

Nobody evaluated the effects of opening the “ valli da pesca” and eliminating oil tanker traffic. In addition, the appeals contested the fact that the Safeguarding commission evaluated the issues in a extremely brief period and only 9 of 72 binders were controlled.

 

 

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References

 

Water in Italy

 

• [1] Dipartimento della protezione civile, Rapporti di attivitá. Retrieved on 11, April, 2007 from http://www.protezionecivile.it/cms/view.php?dir_pk=50&cms_pk=533&n_page=2 
• [2]Villa Lorenzo (2003), Risorse idriche in Italia. Retrieved on 11, April, 2007 fromhttp://jekyll.sissa.it/index.php?document=71

 

Vajont

 

• [1] Istituto Tecnico Industriale Statale “P. Carcano" di Como (1999). Retrieved on 4, April 2007, fromhttp://xoomer.alice.it/lguarag/vajont/index.html

• Dr Petley, David (2001). The Vajont (Vaiont) landslide. Retrived on 3, April 2007 from http://www.land-man.net/vajont/vajont.html 

• Disastro del Vajont. retrieved on 07 april from http://www.vajont.net/

• Comune di Longarone (2005).  Disastro del Vajont- Giudizi e sentenze. Retrieved on 3, April 2007 from http://www.vajont.net/page.php?pageid=SEZIO007

• Wikipedia (2007). Disastro del Vajont. Retrieved on 3, April 2007 from  http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strage_del_Vajont

   

   

Mo.S.E.

 

• [1]   http://www.nomose.org/apnomose.html

• [2]   http://www.nomose.org/doc/why.pdf
• Comune di Venzia. Difesa dalle acque alte. http://www.salve.it/it/news/f_news.htm
• "Cantieri del sistema MOSE alle bocche di porto" (March 2007). Retrieved on april 6, 2007 from www.salve.it/it/soluzioni/acque/f_avanzamento.htm
• Ministero delle infrastrutture e dei trasporti (2007). "il sistema Mose e la difesa di Venezia dalle acque alte". Retrieved on april, 6 2007 from  http//www.infrastrutturetrasporti.it/page/standard/site.php?p=cm&o=vd&id=1437
• CLIMAGRImed, Mediterranean Component of Climagri Project."Water Resources". Retrieved on april,7 2007 from http://www.fao.org/sd/climagrimed/c_1_04_04.html

• Bonati Guido, Fais Andrea, Nino Pasquale. SIGRIA: a tool to support national and local decision-making processes for irrigation.

        Retrieved on april 7, 2007 from http://www.oecd.org/secure/docDocument/0,2827,en_21571361_34281952_35603689_1_1_1_1,00.doc

 

•  No Mose, retrieved on April 10 2007 from http://www.globalproject.info/art-9031.html
• [3] Enel, Mini-idroelettrico:una risorsa da potenziare. Retrieven on april 10, 2007 from: http://www.enel.it/attivita/ambiente/energy/acqua02_menu/acqua02/index.asp
• TECHNITAL S.p.A. - A leading International Engineering and Consulting Firm operating in Italy and abroad since 1964. (2004). Retrieved April 10, 2007 from http://www.technital-spa.com/

 

 

Bottled or tap water?

 

• Eco blog.it. Acqua in bottiglia o del rubinetto? Retrieved on April 7 2007 from http://www.egoblog.it/post/1696/acqua-in-bottiglia-o-acqua-del-rubinetto

 

• Sorella Acqua. Acqua quotidiana. Acqua del rubinetto in bottiglia. Retrieved on April 7 2007 from http://www.buonpernoi.it/acqua/pages/bottiglia.html

 

• WWF. Gruppo Attivo Roma XI. Acqua minerale dal rubinetto. Retrieved on April 2007 from http://www.wwfroma11.it.stili9620di9620vita/acqua.htm