In this bilingual wiki page you can find plenty of information about the role women play in U.S. and Italian society nowadays as far as the labor market is concerned. There are two macro-sections, "The United States" and "Italia", which have been developed in a parallel way, and a final comparison, where the content is summed up in order to point out differences and similarities in the two countries.
The four points that are discussed are the following:
women's participation in the labor force, i.e. unemployment and employment rate, women distribution in the labor market and wage discrimination
an historical analysis of working women's rights
women's participation in politics
a general overview of the main changes in women immigration during the last decades and the problem of trafficking in women
The United States
Women's employment
Over the past decades, the U.S. has been experiencing a significant increase in women’s participation in the labor force. In 1970 only 43% of women were in the labor force, but since the late 1990s the percentage has increased to 59.3%, and today about 71 million of the 120 million women age 16 years and over in the U.S.A are at work[1]. In other words, women represent around 46% of the total U.S. labor force nowadays, although participation rates differ somewhat by race — African-American women 61.7%, white women 59%, Asian women 58.3%, and Hispanic women 56.1%[2]. (To see more statistical tables about U.S. women labor force in 2006, click here.)
With regard to women distribution in the labor market, the largest percentage of women (39%) are employed in management, professional, and related occupations, followed by 34% in sales and office occupations, and 20% in service occupations (see Chart 4). In the high-paying jobs, women account for 51% of all workers; they even outnumber men in occupations such as financial and human resource managers, education administrators and teachers, medical and health care managers, accountants, budget analysts, physical therapists, and registered nurses. However, women presence in sectors such as mining, construction, manufacturing, transportation and utilities is extremely low. There are differences by ethnicity as well: the majority of Asian and white women work in management, professional, and related jobs, whereas the majority of black and Hispanic women work in the sales and office occupations[3].
Since the early 1980s, women’s unemployment rate has been very similar to men’s; in 2007 the rate of jobless women was 4.5% – compared to 4.7% of men. However, this rate varies significantly among the different ethnic groups. As a matter of fact, Asian women have the lowest unemployment rate (3.4 percent), followed by white (4.0 percent), Hispanic (6.1 percent), and black woman (7.5 percent). Furthermore, the unemployment rate varies by educational qualifications as well. For instance, the unemployment rate of women with less than a high school diploma is 8.2%, while that of women with a bachelor’s degree or higher is only 2.1%[4].
In the last years pay discrimination between men and women has reduced (see Chart 1). Women’s earnings grew from 62% in 1979 to about 80% of the corresponding men’s weekly earnings in 2007[5]. However, women are still paid less than men; in 2007 women were paid only 77 cents for every dollar a man was paid[6]. According to Business and Professional Women’s Foundation[7], an average U.S. woman loses about $523,000 over her career because of the wage gap, and the wage discrimination tends to increase with age. For example, in 2002 women aged 25-29 earned 85% of that of men; women aged 35-39 earned 72%, and those aged 45-49, 73%. The pay gap varies by race as well (see Chart 2): it is wider among black and Hispanic women than among white and Asian women[8]. Paradoxically, women who are most highly educated and in the best-paid jobs suffer the widest pay gaps. For example, graduate women earn slightly more than men with only a high school diploma, and in 2004 female physicians, surgeons, or CEOs earned 63% of their male counterpart, and women lawyers, 74%[9]. (To learn more about wage discrimination state by state in the 1990s, click here.)
Women had long been considered weaker than men, unable to hold important positions requiring physical strength and certain specific intellectual faculties. Their traditional roles were wifehood and motherhood and this social view contributed to spreading the stereotype that “a woman’s place is in the home"[10]. Confined in their natural biological role, women were debarred from the rights and the freedoms men enjoyed in the eyes of the government, the law and the church as well.
The 19th century had been a real turning point for them. Many women began working outside their homes, particularly in textile miles and garment shops. Since working conditions were hard, in 1910 The United States passed laws limiting working hours (10 daily hours instead of 12) and improving working conditions of women and children. However, the protective labor laws, passed by The National Consumer’s League and Women’s Trade Union, limited women’s jobs rather than favouring their rising to the working field because they were excluded from many leading positions requiring greater effort[11].
Their status improved between the years of 1930 to 1960. In particular, the Depression before and after World War II, which showed an increasing entrance of women into the workforce, laid the basis of promulgating laws preventing their discrimination in workplaces[12].
The oldest workplace civil rights law is The Equal Pay Act (EPA), which was signed into law by President John F. Kennedy on June 1963. It prohibits sex discrimination in the payment of wages or benefits ‘between men and women in the same establishment who are performing under similar working conditions'[13]. A year later, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act granted women equal working opportunities, since it prohibits not only employment discrimination based on race, color, religion and national origin, but also on sex[14]. Activists joined together in 1996 in order to create the National Organization for Women (NOW), which was supposed to enforce the act’s provisions for women. Nowadays it is the largest organization for feminists in the USA, with approximately 500.000 members[15].
Another federal law that prohibits discrimination is the Civil Service Reform Act of 1978 (CSRA). It contains the so called ‘prohibited personnel practices’, designed to protect fairness in federal personnel actions. Finally, an important law enforced by the U.S. Equal Opportunity Commission is the Civil Rights Act of 1991, which provides for ‘monetary damages in cases of intentional monetary discrimination’[16].
The presence of women in the work force has increased, but they still have to face the problem of reconciling work with family care. A crucial issue is maternity leave because The United States is one of the five countries in the world, together with Lesotho, Liberia, Swaziland and Papua New Guinea, who doesn’t require employers to provide some form of paid maternity leave[17]. This subject is regulated by The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993, aUnited States labor law that allows employees to take 12 workweeks of unpaid job-protected leave each year for specified family and medical reasons[18]. According to human research experts, states are beginning to improve work protections. In California, for instance, a legislation for paid family leave has been passed. It is called the State Disability Insurence Program and provides employees '6 weeks of partial pay per year to take care for a newborn or other family matters'[19].
Women obtained the right to vote in with the ratification of the 19th Amendment to the Federal Constitution in 1920. The struggle for women's suffrage was long and dramatic. The women’s movement officially began in 1848 during a convention at . The declaration that emerged stated that “the history of mankind is a history of repeated injuries and usurpation on the part of man toward woman”. As women’s suffrage gained popularity, many activists were arrested and jailed. A woman-suffrage amendment to the Constitution was presented every year to the Congress starting from 1878 but it failed to pass until 1920[20] (WIC,1994).Seneca FallsU.S.
In 1866, Elizabeth Cady Stanton was the first woman to run for the U.S. House of Representatives, even though women did not yet had the right to vote. The first women elected to the U.S. House of Representatives and to the Senatewere Jeanette Rankin (1917) and Rebecca Latimer Felton(1922) respectively[21] (The American Presidency,2004). Nancy Pelosi was the first woman to lead a major party in the Congress as House Democratic Leader in 2001 becoming the highest ranking elected woman throughout American history[22] (Susan Jo Keller,2008).
Even though women make up more than half of the registered voters in the U.S., their political role has always been minimal. Since 1789, only two percent of members of Congress have been women[23] (Kathy Gill,2008) . From 1922 to 2008 only thirty-five women have served in the Senate[24] (CAWP,2008). No woman has ever been elected Chief Executive of the United States. Until now, only twenty-two women have been on a ballot for President, including Hillary Clinton[25] (The National Organization for Women,2008).
The women mentioned above believed that they could make a difference and improve women’s conditions by participating in the political life of their country. In her campaign, Hillary Clinton presents herself as a Champion for Women, promoting measures against disparities between men and women and introducing the Paycheck Faireness Act to strengthen the penalities concerning wage discrimination[26] (Hillary for President,2008). Moreover, she has fought to expand job opportunities for women so that they are able to hold non-traditional positions (carpenter, electrician, police officer)[27] (Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton,2008).
Yet a lot still has to be done in order to increase the number of women participating in U.S. politics. According to CAWP (Center for American women and Politics) in 2008, only eighty-seven women serve in the U.S. Congress. Sixteen women (16.0 percent of the 535 seats) serve in the Senate, whereas seventy-one women (16.3 percent of the 435 seats) serve in the House. Nowadays, seventy-four women hold statewide elective executive positions in US (23.5 percent of the 315 available positions). As these current numbers and percentages illustrate, women are still drammatically unrepresented in US government[28] (CAWP,2008).
Along with Canada and Great Britain, the United States is one of the few nations that has more immigrant women than immigrant men. Even though they account for over half of the 9.1 million of the legal immigrants residing in the U.S., too little attention has been paid to them in recent national debates, as their immigration has long been seen as tied to that of their male family members.[29]
However, a lot has changed in their role during the last thirty years of female immigrants to the U.S: in the past many women principally migrated to join their family members, today most of them come independently, in order to seek better economic opportunities or to fulfill the desire for self-realization, willing to reject their traditional female roles. [30] In recent years, their participation in the labor market has steadily increased from 6% in 1960 to 9% in 1994, contributing to more than 15% to the growth of the country’s labor force. [31]
The differences in women immigrants in terms of country of origin, age, status, education and in the amount of time they have been in the U.S., may, however, affect their participation and relative success in the labor market.[32]Considering the general differences in their socio-demographic characteristics, two major groups of immigrant women can be distinguished: on the one hand, given their high level of education, women from Europe, Canada and United Kingdom display almost similar occupational status and earnings to those of native-born women. [33]
On the other hand, women from Mexico, Indochina and the Middle East, having on average five less years of education and higher fertility rates than native-born women, are more likely to be unemployed or confined to less paid jobs, such as working as operatives in low-skilled factories, in household services, or in human care, with scarce possibilities of economic mobility.[34] Mexican women in particular, who have the lowest level of education and the highest fertility rate, are most likely to undertake jobs in insecure environments, where they face the risk of being exploited by their employers, who frequently take advantage of their immigration status to impose on them harsh working conditions.[35]
Regardless of their country of origin or characteristics, the fact of being undocumented prevent migrant women from accessing medical care, social services, shelters and housing programs, making them particularly vulnerable to abuses and sexual trafficking.[36]
Trafficking in women for sex industry, forced labor or for domestic servitude are a widespread phenomenon in all regions of the United States. About 50,000 women are trafficked each year into the United States, primarily from Latin America, countries of the former Soviet Union and Southeast Asia.[37]
Taking advantage of the precarious status of migrant women and of the rising unemployment in their source countries, traffickers offer them higher earnings and better working conditions in the U.S., under false promises of obtaining legal jobs. Once they arrived in United states, they are obliged to work as prostitutes against their will and they are forbidden from keeping the money they make. Moreover, they are frequently forced to live in very bad conditions with limited access to medical care, suffering several kinds of physical and mental abuse. [38]
In Italia il numero delle donne impiegate nel mondo del lavoro è aumentato sensibilmente in questi ultimi anni. Se nel 2003 il tasso di occupazione femminile era del 37,5%, nel 2007 è salito al 46,6%, pari al 40,5% di tutta la forza lavoro[39]. Tuttavia, ancora oggi meno della metà delle donne in età lavorativa ha un'occupazione (contro il 70,7% degli uomini) e profonde disparità tra Nord e Sud continuano a persistere. Nel 2007, ad esempio, al Nord il 57,2% delle donne risultava avere un’occupazione contro il 34,7% al Sud. Significativo è che in Campania il tasso di occupazione femminile (27,9%) è meno della metà di quello dell'Emilia Romagna (62%), la regione con la più alta percentuale di lavoratrici[40]. Permane, dunque, un certo ritardo rispetto all'obiettivo del 60% di occupazione femminile entro il 2010, stabilito dall'UE nel 2000 a Lisbona; ad oggi, infatti, l’Italia occupa il penultimo posto in Europa, seguita solo da Malta[41].
Per quanto riguarda la distribuzione dell’occupazione femminile nel mercato del lavoro, secondo Centro Studi Legacoop[42], la componente femminile risulta essere irrisoria nell’agricoltura, nella produzione e distribuzione di energia e acqua, nell’estrazione di minerali, e nelle costruzioni. I settori in cui essa, invece, è relativamente elevata sono: alberghi e ristoranti (47,9%), istruzione (56,0%), pubblica amministrazione e difesa, assicurazioni (57,9%), sanità ed altri servizi sociali (58,9%). Si parla a proposito di “femminilizzazione” del terziario, in particolare dei servizi personali, sociali, culturali, ricreativi e sanitari. Tuttavia, anche in questo settore persiste il cosiddetto“tetto di cristallo", ossia una “sottile, trasparente ma robustissima pellicola che divide le donne dai posti che contano”, dalle professioni più qualificate o dalle posizioni manageriali[43]. Ad esempio, nella sanità pubblica le donne rappresentano il 60,9% del totale, ma la distribuzione dei ruoli non è equa: solo il 32,2% di esse è medico, mentre il 75,5% appartiene al personale infermieristico[44].
Anche il tasso di disoccupazione risulta essere ancora fortemente a sfavore del “gentil sesso”. Secondo un’indagine Istat[45] sull’anno 2007, in media il 7,9% delle donne risulta disoccupato contro il 4,9% degli uomini. Il dato più allarmante riguarda il Mezzogiorno dove la quota di donne senza impiego oscilla tra il 17,3% della Sicilia e il 14,5% della Calabria, contro il 3,8% del Trentino o il 3,9% dell’Emilia Romagna (clicca qui per vedere sulla cartina dell’Italia il tasso di disoccupazione femminile nelle varie regioni riferito all’anno 2006).
Un’altra importante questione è quella dei cosiddetti differenziali retributivi di genere. Ciò significa che le donne, a parità di mansione e titolo di studio, guadagnano molto meno dei loro colleghi maschi. Il differenziale retributivo tra uomini e donne è mediamente del 23,3%; si è calcolato “un 22% in meno per le lavoratrici dipendenti e un 27% in meno per quelle autonome”[46]. In generale, quindi, le donne guadagnano quasi un quarto in meno degli uomini; inoltre, le statistiche dimostrano che le differenze di reddito tra uomini e donne sono maggiori nelle professioni più qualificate e meglio retribuite e nelle aree geografiche dove il reddito è più alto[47]. Ad esempio, si è stimato che una dirigente guadagna in media il 26,3 per cento in meno di un uomo[48].
La donna iniziò a lavorare fuori casa soltanto con l’avvento della rivoluzione industriale. I compiti a lei riservati richiedevano scarsa responsabilità e subiva molte discriminazioni in termini di trattamento economico. Durante la prima guerra mondiale, dal momento che gli uomini erano impegnati al fronte, vennero impiegate molte donne le quali diedero prova di poter svolgere compiti anche piuttosto gravosi. Tuttavia, fu proprio nell’immediato primo dopoguerra che dovettero sostenere una dura limitazione relativa all’ ingresso negli uffici pubblici, e più precisamente non erano ammesse ad esercitare “i pubblici impieghi che implicassero poteri pubblici giurisdizionali, o l’esercizio di diritti o potestà politiche, o che attenessero alla difesa militare dello Stato”[49]. Inoltre, la legge n. 528 del 1919, vietava sino a 28 anni alle addette agli apparati di comunicazione telefonica di sposarsi, in quanto si riteneva che ciò avrebbe influenzato e quindi peggiorato le loro prestazioni lavorative.
Il fascismo negò alla donna il diritto al lavoro, relegandola al tradizionale ruolo di madre. Molte furono le norme interne di sbarramento emanate durante il Ventennio, come ad esempio un decreto del 1938 che fissava in un massimo del 10% rispetto agli organici la percentuale di posti pubblici o privati disponibili per le donne. Il notevole sviluppo del settore terziario negli anni Trenta vide però l’aumento della presenza femminile negli impieghi privati[50].
L’inizio degli anni Cinquanta vide un miglioramento dei diritti della donna al lavoro. Innanzitutto la Costituzione repubblicana del 1948 sancì il principio di parità tra uomo e donna, abrogando così l’ordinamento previgente che le escludeva dalle attività di rilievo pubblico. Tali disposizioni furono accolte però solo dopo molti anni con disposizioni anti-discriminatorie e, a partire dagli anni Settanta, con il recepimento di direttive comunitarie riguardanti l’eguaglianza retributiva. Negli anni Sessanta furono varate importanti leggi riguardanti il lavoro femminile; ad esempio il divieto di licenziamento delle lavoratrici per causa di matrimonio (1963), l’ammissione della donna ai pubblici uffici e alle professioni (1963) e l’uguaglianza di remunerazionetra manodopera maschile e femminile (1965). Ulteriori normative intese a rafforzare l’effettiva parità tra uomo e donna furono promulgate nel 1991 e nel 2007[51].
Gli anni Settanta furono cruciali per quanto riguarda la legislazione a tutela delle lavoratrici madri, nel 1971 fu infatti varata la legge che ne costituisce il fondamento giuridico. Essa introdusse il concetto di maternità come valore sociale predisponendo provvedimenti assistenziali ed economici volti a consentire alla donna lo svolgimento della propria attività lavorativa senza trascurare la famiglia. La successiva normativa del 2002, tuttora vigente, estende ulteriori disposizioni in materia oltre al diritto di astensione dal lavoro anche al padre lavoratore. Oggi, durante la maternità, la donna gode della legge relativa al divieto di licenziamento dall’inizio del periodo di gestazione fino al compimento del primo anno del bambino. Inoltre, hal’obbligo di astenersi dal lavoro durante i 2 mesi precedenti la data presunta del parto e durante i 3 mesi dopo il parto, anche se la nuova legge del 2000 ha introdotto la possibilità di continuare a lavorare fino all’ottavo mese di gravidanza ed astenersi così per 4 mesi dopo il parto. Nel periodo di astensione le lavoratrici hanno diritto ad un’indennità pari all’80% della retribuzione media percepita mensilmente oltre alla normale copertura contributiva[52].
L’entrata delle donne nella politica italiana è abbastanza recente: risale al 31 Gennaio 1945 quando il Consiglio dei ministri emanò un decreto legislativo che attribuiva alle donne il diritto di voto. Con questo decreto veniva finalmente riconosciuto il diritto al suffragio universale per cui tanto si era battuto il movimento femminista[53]. (Rai Educational,2001)
Anche se sul piano legislativo vengono abolite le disparità di genere, le donne hanno sempre ricoperto un ruolo marginale nella politica italiana. Dal 1946 al 1986 la presenza delle donne in Parlamento è rimasta invariata al 7% della rappresentanza complessiva, nonostante la componente femminile dell'elettorato rappresenti il 52% del totale degli elettori[54] (Cottone, 2008). Solamente Nilde Iotti e IrenePivetti si sono sedute su una poltrona istituzionale: la prima come presidente della Camera dal 1979 al 1992, la seconda dal 1994 al 1996[55] (Stimolo, 2004). Altre donne come Lina Merlin e Tina Anselmi hanno saputo lasciare un segno nella storia della politica italiana. Si tratta comunque di casi isolati come dimostra la classifica delle 100 donne più potenti al mondo pubblicata da Forbes in cui non appare nessuna donna italiana per quanto riguarda la politica[56].
Al fine di favorire il riequilibrio della presenza fra donne e uomini nelle assemblee elettive e nei pubblici uffici nel 2003 il Parlamento ha approvato una modifica all’articolo 51 della Costituzione[57]. Grazie a questa modifica, la Repubblica si impegna non solo a garantire la parità tra sessi in materia di rappresentanza politica ma anche a promuovere “con appositi provvedimenti le pari opportunità tra donne e uomini”[58] (Art.51, Costituzione).
Si tratta dunque di un passo importante verso il conseguimento delle pari opportunità tra donne e uomini nella politica italiana.La nuova legge è stata infatti applicata con succcesso durante le elezionieuropee del giugno del 2005 portando al raddoppio delle candidature femminili e adun sensibile incremento nel numero delle elette. I risultati ottenuti hanno permesso all’Italia di perdere il triste titolo di paese con la minor rappresentanza femminile nel Parlamento Europeo[59] (Dipartimento Diritti e Pari Opportunità, Le Donne e la politica).
In linea con la modifica dell’articolo 51, l’8 febbraio 2006 il Sentato ha approvato a larga maggioranza il disegno di legge sulle quote rosa volto a favorire al partecipazione delle donne nella vita politica italiana. L'obiettivo era quello di garantire un’adeguata rappresentanza femminile nella composizione delle liste elettorali della Camera e del Senato. Tuttavia, a causa della fine della legislatura, il disegno di legge non è mai passato al voto della Camera dei Deputati[60] (Cottone, 2006).
Malgrado le iniziative del Ministero delle Pari Opportunità e delle commissioni regionali, permangono tuttora ostacoli di natura sociale, che impediscono alle donne di godere appieno dei propri diritti politici. La donna viene spesso ritratta come soggetto debole, bisognoso di tutela e pertanto inadatto ad occuparsi di questioni politiche. Questa convinzione diffusa si riflette anche nelle scelte dell’elettorato.Nel 2006 infatti le donne occupavano rispettivamenteil 17% e il 14% dei seggi della Camera dei Deputati e del Senato. Con le elezioni politiche 2008, il quadro generale e' sicuramente migliorato ma non in maniera decisiva. Nella nuova legislatura le deputate e senatrici sono 178 (occupano cioè il 19% dei seggi delle Camere in seduta comune).
Il Pd ha mantenuto le promesse fatte in campagna elettorale portando alla camera 59 deputate su 211 eletti e 38 senatrici su 116 eletti per un totale di quasi 30%. Al contrario il Pdl vanta solamente 11 senatrici su 141 eletti e 52 deputate su 272 seggi ottenuti per un totale di 20% [61](Vitali ,2008). Dati delle elezioni politiche alla mano, l’ Italia passerebbe dal 67° al 50° posto nella graduatoria mondiale per la rappresentanza femminile in Parlamento dell’Inter-Parliamentary Union.
Negli ultimi trent'anni, i cambiamenti nella condizione delle donne immigrate in Italia sono stati pochi ma significativi. Negli anni settanta, le donne immigrate che provenivano dal Nord d’Africa e dall’Europa dell’Est passavano inosservate perché arrivavano con i loro mariti. Mentre gli uomini immigrati trovavano lavoro, le donne restavano a casa per occuparsi della famiglia. Tuttavia, negli ultimi due decenni, l'aumento delle donne italiane che lavorano fuori casa ha creato nuovo opportunità di lavoro anche per le donne immigrate. Molte di loro infatti vengono spesso impiegate come badanti per prendersi cura di anziani o persone disabili.
Benché queste donne siano diventate più indipendenti e abbiano trovato migliori opportunità di lavoro come quello di “badante,” esiste ancora discriminazione fra donne immigrate da paesi poveri e donne immigrate da paesi più ricchi. Soprattutto per le donne immigrate che vengono da paesi poveri come Albania, Romania, Marocco, Filippine, ecc. esiste una mancanza di istruzione e, perciò, esse rimangono spesso confinate ai lavori più mediocri. Al contrario, le donne che vengono dal Nord Europa o dagli Stati Uniti hanno un vantaggio immediato quando entrano in Italia perché arrivano già con una buona istruzione alle spalle e trovano lavori all’altezza delle loro capacità. Inoltre, le donne immigrate da paesi poveri tendono a mandare una buona parte dei loro guadagni al paese d’origine, mentre questa non è una necessità per quelle che vengono da paesi più ricchi. Un altro fattore discriminante è la lingua; ancora una volta le donne provenienti dai paesi meno sviluppati sono svantaggiate nell’apprendimento dell’italiano che risulta più facile per le donne più istruite. Infine, le immigrate che hanno scelto l’Italia non solo per lavoro ma anche per motivi di studio si concentrano soprattutto nelle sedi di prestigiose università, come Padova, Bologna, Milano, Firenze, e Roma [62](Immigrazione in Italia è donne).
Un altro problema è quello delle donne immigrate che entrano illegalmente. Queste donne, che molto spesso vengono dai paesi più poveri, subiscono forme di grave sfruttamento. Oltretutto, la tradizionale omogeneità che esiste nella società italiana si scontra con le culture, lingue, e religioni di queste donne immigrate, illegali o no [63](Bartalesi-Graf 237). Perciò, quella parte della società italiana più tradizionale e conservatrice vede queste donne immigrate come inferiori. Come risulato, queste donne mancano delle conoscenze in Italia che altre donne immigrate più accettate (dal Nord Europa e dall'America) hanno ed è più probabile che possano entrare in Italia illegalmente. Perciò le donne che immigrano illegalmente sono esposte ad un maggior sfruttamento di quelle che entrano legalmente. Questo è perché sono in una posizione debole e accettano qualsiasi tipo di lavoro e qualsiasi tipo di promessa.
La forma più ignobile di sfruttamento é quella della prostituzione involontaria, purtroppo ancora oggi praticata. La maggior parte delle donne che entrano nel giro della prostituzione provengono dall’Europa dell’Est e dal Nord Africa. Molto spesso queste donne sono attratte dalla promessa di buoni guadagni e della facilitazione ad entrare nel paese. Per vari motivi il traffico di prostitute é più elevato in Italia che in altri paesi dell’Europa dell'ovest. Infatti, 300.000 donne emigrate dall’Europa dell’Est lavorano nel mondo della prostituzione in Europa occidentale, e di queste, più di 35.000 lavorano in Italia [64](Casey Newell). Esse sono sottoposte ad un abuso non solo fisico ma anche mentale. Per esempio, alcune donne albanesi sono convinte dai loro stessi fidanzati albanesi a traslocare in Italia perché c’e più opportunità. In realtà, l’intenzione è quella di introdurre queste donne nel mondo della prostituzione [65](Bartalesi-Graf 12). Lo stesso maltrattamento viene riservato alle donne provenienti dall’Africa, in particolare dalla Nigeria quando entrano nel mondo della prostituzione. Sono prima convinte dal trafficante che questo tipo di lavoro è facile, temporaneo, e permette loro di ritornare nel loro paese con tanti soldi. In realtà, queste donne giovani non hanno nessuna idea della vita che le aspetta nel mondo della prostituzione ed entrano in grandi città come Milano, Torino, e Roma con molta confusione e vulnerabilità [66](Bartalesi-Graf 4). Quando queste donne sono in queste condizioni, diventa molto facile per i trafficanti controllarle. Molto spesso essi sfruttano a loro vantaggio le loro credenze religiose anche in forme di minaccia per trattenerle in questa attività illegale [67](Bartalesi-Graf 5). Questo traffico clandestino in Italia è così diffuso e organizzato che è quasi impossibile per le donne più deboli uscirne ed è altrettanto difficile per le forze dell’ordine tenerlo sotto controllo e per le autorità sanitarie proteggere queste donne dal contrarre e diffondere malattie.
Comparison U.S. & Italy
Women's employment
In recent years women’s presence in the workforce has steadily increased in both nations, accounting for 40,5 % and 46% of the US and Italy total labor force respectively. However, differences in their participation rate still persist: in Italy it considerably varies between Northern and Southern regions, whereas in the U.S. it essentially depends on race and ethnic groups. Likewise, in Italy women highest unemployment rate is in the South (e.g. 17.3 % in Sicily against 3 % in Trentino Alto Adige), while in the U.S. it is higher within Hispanic and African-American women.
As regards women’s distribution in the U.S. and Italian labor market, the majority of them is employed in the tertiary sector, primarily in management and professional fields, although this varies by race and source country. However, if on the one hand in Italyskilled and educated women still find difficulties in holding the highest positions in the labor market, in the US they even outnumber men. Overall, both American and Italian women still face gender pay gap, above all in the more qualified and best paid jobs.
Working women's rights
Before the Industrial Revolution women in both countries had long been excluded from the majority of rights that men enjoyed. Their role was solely relegated to that of mother and wife as they were considered intellectually and physically inferior to men. Even when women began to work in factories and their contribution to the workforce was eventually recognized, gender inequality did not diminished. If on the one hand the passage of protective labor legislation both in Italy (1902) and in the U.S. (1910) improve women’s condition in the workplace, on the other it limited their economic opportunities, preventing them from holding jobs which were considered too demanding for them.
It was not until the sixties that women could obtain equal employment opportunities. The Equal Pay Act of 1963 in the U.S. and the passage in Italy of important laws against unfair dismissal (1963) and inequality in earnings (1965) put an end to sexual discrimination in the workplace. In Italy significant steps have also been taken to safeguard working women’s rights: since the seventies they have access to paid maternity, and thanks to the labor legislation of 2002 longer periods of maternity leave are guaranteed. In the U.S., on the other hand, the payment of maternity leave is still a controversial issue; however, in some states legislative measures are being taken for its effective enactment.
Women in politics
In the history of both countries the role of women in politics has always been marginal. Even though universal suffrage put an end to gender disparities in U.S. politics, women’s political representation has always been minimal – only thirty-five women in the U.S. Senate from 1922 to 2008.Similarly in Italy, forty years after universal suffrage, the participation rate of women in Parliament remained unchanged at 7% (only few female personalities, e.g. Nilde Iotti and Irene Pivetti run for chamber presidents from 1979 to 1992 and from 1994 to1996 respectively).
Thanks to the recent amendment of Art. 51 in 2003 and the introduction of the “quote rosa” bill in 2006, some steps have been taken towards granting a major representation of women in Italian politics. In fact, the new government has slightly increased the number of female members in Parliament, who now account for 19%. In the U.S. Hillary Clinton is promoting some measures to eliminate sex disparities in politics as well as to give women more opportunities. However, in both countries new laws for an effective and complete participation of women in politics are still needed.
Immigrant womenand forms of exploitation
During the last decades the role of women immigrants has visibly changed in both nations. Nowadays, their immigration is no longer seen as tied to that of men: most of them come independently to seek better economic opportunities both for themselves and for their relatives who remain in their mother country.
However, women immigrants’ source country and education still play a key role in determining their position in the labor market of both countries. On the one hand, women from poorer countries, who have a lower level of education and target language proficiency, are more likely to find less paid and qualified jobs than women coming from wealthier countries, who have on average a higher level of education and, therefore, more and better employment opportunities.
As regards the situation of undocumented women immigrants, similarities between the two countries are to be found as well. Not able to have access to medical care or housing services, they are often likely to be abused by people who take advantage of their unsafe conditions. Most of them become in fact victims of illegal traffickers, who, under false promises of better earnings, force them to work as prostitutes and live in very bad conditions.
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Comments (4)
Anonymous said
at 4:18 am on May 3, 2008
Hi girls! Chiara and I decided to change our subtopics "Immigrant women and prostitution" to "Immigrant women and forms of exploitation"(mine) and "Donne immigrate e prostituzione to "Donne immigrate e sfruttamento" (Chiara's), so that our work can be more homogeneous and easier to compare.
See you on Monday!
Silvia
Anonymous said
at 12:56 am on May 9, 2008
Hi girls, I have a problem: I cannot upload the graph from pdf files. I downloaded the program that Sarah told us yesterday but it doesn't work..:-( How can I do?
Anonymous said
at 5:48 pm on May 9, 2008
Hi Silvia,
Let's send me the pdf. files via email so I see if I can help you!
See you!
Elena
Anonymous said
at 9:52 pm on May 9, 2008
Thank you Elena, I finally managed to do it!
Bye!
You don't have permission to comment on this page.
Comments (4)
Anonymous said
at 4:18 am on May 3, 2008
Hi girls! Chiara and I decided to change our subtopics "Immigrant women and prostitution" to "Immigrant women and forms of exploitation"(mine) and "Donne immigrate e prostituzione to "Donne immigrate e sfruttamento" (Chiara's), so that our work can be more homogeneous and easier to compare.
See you on Monday!
Silvia
Anonymous said
at 12:56 am on May 9, 2008
Hi girls, I have a problem: I cannot upload the graph from pdf files. I downloaded the program that Sarah told us yesterday but it doesn't work..:-( How can I do?
Anonymous said
at 5:48 pm on May 9, 2008
Hi Silvia,
Let's send me the pdf. files via email so I see if I can help you!
See you!
Elena
Anonymous said
at 9:52 pm on May 9, 2008
Thank you Elena, I finally managed to do it!
Bye!
You don't have permission to comment on this page.